Space and Time Variables in ESP

Reprinted from the Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research Volume LIX — April 1965 — Number 2 SPACE AND TIME VARIABLES IN ESP BY Karis Osis AND JARL FAHLER

Space and Time Variables in ESP Karis Osis AND JARL FAHLER! 1 RACT: A survey of published ESP experiments involving distance (8) re ee a weoring level wach distance between targets. present experiment statistically i t variations coring were found to be associated with the four conditions used in the essential variables of these conditions seem to be distances in between conditions variance of the ESP scores could be attributa- INTRODUCTION i dal Is steadily growing experimental evidence that ESP can overce ie great distances in space and seemingly also in time, trating the future, This characteristic has aroused tremendous Sigiong philosophers (2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 18) and induced sychologists to philosophize upon it (1, 13, 19). One of us D .) has discussed elsewhere (8) the pertinent literature and the methodological problems in detail. The main finding of that survey was that the ESP scores analyzed tended to decline with ih distances between subjects and targets. The decline was ‘not in accordance with the inverse square law of energy expansion, but followed an “inverse two-fifth’s law”; that is, the scores i by somewhat less than the inverse square root. DESIGN OF THE EXPERIMENT In this research an attempt was made to collect data pertinent to the problem of ESP over distances in space and time by the use of a complex experimental design. Space and time variables were used jointly because they seem to be closely related in oo measurements. It thus seems reasonable to suppose may also affect, in a related way, the actions of the “channel factor” (8, p. 24) in ESP. -_ * At the time this experiment was ‘ormed, ee Associate at Boe Pareverchology ‘yrallaceny Duke Uni unior author was President of the innish S.P.R. (Sallskapet for Psykiak ori | Finland) arapsychology Founda- he research was supported in part by a grant from the Para

131 Space and Time Variables in ESP A number of methodological difficulties with space and time variables have been encountered by other researchers (6, 11, 14. 17). We tried to overcome some of them by incorporating the following provisions: In contrast to the Duke experiments with Marchesi (6, 14) or Soal’s work with Mrs, Stewart (17), we chose a multiple-subject design, which is necessary to exclude idiosyncrasies in experiments where achievement levels are compared. Otherwise, the subjects’ ities are confounded with the variables tested. The subjects’ attitudes to the conditions compared were ascertained by means of a questionnaire (see p. 135). We arrived at three attitudinal aspects: (1) Belief or disbelief in the kind of ESP tested, (2) the subjects’ confidence in their own ability in relation to the particular ESP task, and (3) their feelings while taking each of the tests. The subjects’ habitual reactions to frus- trating situations were tested by means of Rosenzweig’s Picture- Frustration Study (15, 16). Four types of ESP tests were used for each subject: 1. ESP over no appreciable distance (Near-Distance or ND test). 2. ESP over a distance in space of approximately 4000 miles (Long-Distance or LD test). 3. ESP over a distance in time (Precognition or Pcg, test). 4. ESP over a distance in space and time combined (Pcg, test). These four types of ESP tests were aimed to tap two variables: i in space and distance in time. The variables were given in two intensities: the variable present and the variable absent; that is, distance present or absent, and the time gap between guessing and target arrangement present or absent. In condition (1) th of the factors were absent. In condition (2) only the spatial distance was present. In condition (3) only the temporal distance was present. In condition (4) both factors were present. This type of experimental design is commonly called ‘“‘two-by-two factorial.” The experiment was designed to shed light on the question whether space and time factors significantly influence ESP scoring and, more specifically, to test the following three hypotheses: 1. The four test conditions will influence ESP scoring level to a Statistically significant extent as measured by between conditions variance. 2. The influence of the variables will be traceable to space factor, the time factor, or interactions between them. peek The between conditions variance will not be geeutble to ive factors, such as the subjects’ reactions to the experiment aad their attitudes toward the test conditions. These hypotheses will be further clarified in the sections to follow. al of the American Society for Psychical Research 132 PROCEDURE ‘The duties of the two experimenters were divided in this research. J.F., located in Helsingfors, Finland, worked with the s. He selected them from among the members of the h S.P.R., whose President he was at that time. Nearly all twenty-four subjects had been tested by J.F. before and him about their spontancous psi experiences; it was on of this information that the selection of subjects was made. administered all the ESP tests, attitude questionnaire, and the ire-Frustration (P-F) test. He also trans the instructions into the Finnish lan, ; +» at that time located at A iy aT Laboratory, c “Lote Durham, N. C., made the preliminary survey of published data and designed the present experiment in close ultation with pores E. Turner, Jr.* K.O.’s duties included preparation o experimental material, handling of the et Saou “4 eae and ores the results, nty-four subjects took part in the experiment, each attendi individual session during which he carried out eight — for each of the four conditions. Thus a total of 192 runs was performed for the entire experiment, with a different target order fo each subject. After the completion of cach set of two runs, ie subje ct was given the attitude questionnaire; the P-F test was dministered at the end of the experimental session. ar-Distance or ND Test _ The targets consisted of two columns of abbreviated ESP card : i record sheet. The target sheet was placed between two Professor Turncr, Chairman of the Department of Biometry School of Emory University, advised us on statistical problems. Drs. R. Wallin MGhien treated te oid natal cape oa ee a ter ares of the experiment depended on the fine of the Members of the S.P.R. in F . We deeply appreciate the of all these

133 Space and Time Variables in ESP unopened to the Duke Laboratory and all the seals were found intact. Long-Distance or LD Test Two columns of ESP cards, twenty-five in each column, were laid face down on a table in K.O.'s office at Duke at the appointed times. J.F.’s name, written on an index card, was placed at the top of the card columns to identify the iment. The columns were marked with the Roman numerals I and II. K.O. sat at the table during the session. His role was meant to be merely that of a living identification mark to help the subjects locate the cards. The records of the subjects’ calls were mailed to Duke, but the target records were not sent to Finland in order to safeguard against the possibility of precognition without distance. Precognition or Peg, Test In this test the subjects had to respond to a target order which was not in existence at the time they made their guesses. The target order was created later. If the subjects were to achieve extrachance results, they would have to overcome a distance in time. They were instructed to write on the record sheet the ESP symbols they thought that the experimenter (K.O.) would later write in beside their guesses. After the experiment was finished, and the material sent to Duke, K.O. randomized the target order and inscribed it on the record sheet beside each subject’s guesses. The record sheets with the inscribed targets were then mailed back to Finland and each subject had to read his target list aloud.* It was thought that this procedure would help the subject to recognize the without necessarily having to combine this : with overcoming the factor of distance in space. Precognition plus Long Distance or Peg, Test In this test the target order was not only created after the subjects had made their guesses; it was also kept at a long spatial distance from them. They therefore had to overcome both distance in time and distance in space to obtain extrachance results. The detailed method used here was exactly the same as that used for be =| 2 subjects were instructed to attempt to precognize the target order which Bete rarea ascaee of tha coun guieell ao the tana tay. food own future o targets at the time they aloud from the Pog, sheets. But this is a remote ity because, during \ersaig, age esbiad nor J.F. knew that would see the Peg, sheets on. subjects’ attention was focused on the spaces on the record and on what would later be fill: HALE al of the American Society for Psychical Research 134 he Peg, tests, except that after K.O. randomized the target order and inscribed it on the record sheets he kept the sheets at Duke. Thus the subjects never had an opportunity to be in the vicinity of them, nor were they ever informed of the target order. urget Determination for both Precognition Tests _ The method of target determination for both py Si tests was similar to that described elsewhere by K.O. (7). slight odifications were introduced for entering the random number book. Targets were generated by “translating” the digits in the random number book into card symbols by means of a fixed code. In order to exclude the possible influence of the experimenter’s clairvoyance in choices in the random number book, the following steps were taken: k.O. threw four times by cup a set of three ten-sided dice, He rded them and so obtained four three-digit numbers. They then multiplied together on a calculator. This result was iplied by its digits in the reverse order. This usually gave a of sixteen to twenty digits. The square root of, the ten to the left was then extracted. The first pair of digits on the ht was used to determine the page in the book, the second pair determine the column, and the third pair to determine the 7 age column. Target determination was done separately for bo ts of Pcg targets. The set with the smaller square root of the determination process was assigned to the Pcg, tests, in which the record sheets were sent back to Finland. The set with the larger square root was assigned to the Peg, tests, in which the record sheets were kept at Duke and never seen by the subjects.* _ The four types of ESP tests could be in twenty-four combinations, ¢.g., ND, Peg, , LD, Peg, , etc. These twenty-four combinations were randomized and assigned to the subjects according to the alphabetical order of their names. The Questionnaire A questionnaire designed to ascertain the subjects’ attitudes toward the three types of ESP tests was administered after each group of two runs. The wording was slightly changed to adapt it to each condition. The following questionnaire for the ND condi- tion is a representative example: b ing books and articles about it, his experic , ete, Since the findings from this. questionnaire are not taken account in the statistical evaluations of the data, it will not be described in

135 Space and Time Variables in ESP CLAIRVOYANCE TEST A. Do you think some people are able to obtain information by i ? Sure t it——,, this is a possibility, it might be so or not-——, it seems unlikely——, it is impossible——. B. Do you believe that you are sometimes able to get some impressions by means of clairvoyance? Sure about it——,, this is a possibility——, it might be so or not——,, it seems unlikely——, it is impossible——. C. Do you feel that you might have been able to get some clair- voyant impressions of the cards in the present experiment ? Sure about it——, this is a possibility——, it might be so or not——,, it seems unlikely ——,, it is impossible——. . How did you feel during the clairvoyance tests? . Was there anything unpleasant in taking the tests ? . What was your feeling when you had to go and do the clair- voyance test? Eager to do it——, felt it a pleasant task——, was indifferent to it——,, felt a trifle bothered by it——, disliked doing it——. Question A was aimed at the subject’s general belief that ESP could occur under the particular test condition (ND, LD, Peg, , or Pcg,). Questions B and C were intended to measure the personal aspirations of the subject. The last three items related to his feelings, or emotional attitude, during the tests. D and E were designed as open-ended questions since emotional attitudes are difficult to rate quantitatively. K.O. scored the questionnaires without knowledge of the subjects’ ESP scores. Items A, B, C, and F were scored on a e of 0 to 4 points. Zero was given for a check on the last alternative, and one point was added for each step toward accept- ance. Questions D and E were scored according to K.O.’s ratings. The range for D was 0 to 4, but for E, 0 to —5. Rosenzweig's Picture-Frustration Study (P-F) This test consists of a booklet with twenty-four drawings expressing frustrating situations. In a “balloon” over the head of one character a sentence is printed. In another “balloon” the subject has to write the answer of the other character involved in the situation. The test is designed to ascertain how individuals habitually function in frustrating situations. We thought that some of the test conditions (long distance ESP and p ition) might Prove quite serny to some of the subjects. Such frustration might influence the scores; for example, by lowering them in mmo al of the American Society for Psychical Research 136 1¢ LD and Pcg conditions. If this occurred, one might interpret ‘jt as an effect of distance when in fact it was not. We wanted to “separate the subjects who habitually show little concern for es from those who become upset over them. One of Rosenzweig’s scoring categories, Obstacle Dominance, was selected as the most appropriate for our purposes. 2 " IG test was adininiatared toy. 6: and sees by Ov aceoctiion ‘to the standard procedure (15, 16), while subjects’ names were concealed by paper strips glued over them. Resu.ts _ Under some ESP test conditions, the hits are concentrated directly upon the target for which the call was intended; there is ‘no displacement. Under other conditions, there is a tendency to displacement; i.c., the subject calls the card just before or bene ifter the target card. In the present experiment we anticipa that the main effect might occur in terms of displacement; accord- ‘ingly, the data were checked® for direct hits (0), for backward ent (—1), and for forward displacement (+1). The this check showed that the main effect occurred in terms displacement (Table 1). It is marginally significant results of of Tante | ‘Tora. Deviations or Tan Traum ESP Mrasunes Unpver tue Four Test Conprrions, 48 Runs my Eacu (x? = 13.51, 4 d.f.) if one estimates the variation between condi- ‘tions’ in a crude way by the chi-square test. The smallest deviations from the chance line result from direct hits on the target. There are larger but not significant deviations on the forward displacement. An inspection of Table | gives the impression that if ESP occurred, it was dispersed under all four of the conditions. Comparisons, therefore, are clearly out of reach of simple statistical methods. The original plan had been to evaluate the results be Bog analysis-of-variance method. However, our statistical adviser, * This was carried out by K.O. and rechecked by another member of the Duke Laboratory staff, M4 itiens” refers to the four types of ESP tests (ND, LD, Peg, , and Pcg,) described on p. 131.

137 Space and Time Variables in ESP Professor Turner, suggested that we use multivariate analysis of variance. This is a complex analysis where the variance of all three measures (0, —1, +1) is included after a proper adjustment for interdependency among them. It is an over-all evaluation which excludes the possibility of errors by selecting among the three types of measures (0, —1, +1). All the data have been transformed by of the American Society for Psychical Research 138 the arc sin transformations method in order to conform to the 2e irements of normal distribution for analysis of variance. ¢ first column of Table 2, marked “0,” gives the evaluation FP of direct hits. All variances are very close to the error variance 3 level. Apparently ESP did not manifest itself in this experiment s3 in terms of direct hits. The next column, ‘“—1,” is an evaluation of backward displacement scores. The difference between condi- tions is significant (3P = .01). The same trend is expressed in the third column, “+1,” which gives the evaluation of forward displacement. Only the between conditions variance markedly —927.155 | —103.725 | —1,080.851 zs ~ s 7 é A departs from the error variance, but not significantly so, When the $ 3 m4 between conditions variance is split into individual degrees of 8 HE freedom, the interactions between distance and precognition E g factors turn out to be the sole contributors in both displacement Z i #7 columns. Pa g|e The results of all three measures (0, —1, +1) are taken together . i 5 mie | e& in the statistic called ‘Wilks’ Criterion.” The associated prob- q 5 $5 4 abilities are given in the last column of Table 2. The trends are - 5 ale e practically the same as in the analysis of backward and forward . . —1s displacement scores. There is a significant difference between ESP 3 1 | scores in the four conditions used which is concentrated at the E S355 S interactions between the space and time variables. The subjects z S responded uniformly to these variables as expressed in the small < interactions variance (P = .5) between subjects and conditions. The multivariate analyses of variance described above form the backbone of our evaluations and their results are the main findings. All of the following evaluations are merely attempts to ascertain whether the main findings can be explained by variables other than distance in space and time. It was determined from the beginning to use only the most significant of the three ESP measures (0, —1, +-1) for assessment in relation to the attitude questionnaire and the Picture-Frustration Study. Evaluation by the chi-square method, as indicated in Table 1, clearly indicated that backward displacement was the choice. (A combined analysis of the three ESP measures, together with three independent variables (two attitude categories and a P-F category) might have been possible, but it would have made too many demands upon the statistical skills and the time allow- ances of the senior author.) 4,146.682 | 3,649.943 MuurrvaniaTe ANALYs1s oF VARIANCE oF THE THunen ESP Measunes (0, —1, +1) roducts were rounded for sake of convenience #0," *—1" and “+1” the significance Herp baa nae ¢t Sums of

139 Space and Time Variables in ESP The next step was to evaluate the main scores of the attitude questionnaire: 1. Subject’s belief in the existence of ESP of the particular types tested, i.c., “sheep-goat”’ attitude. 2. Subject’s aspiration level or confidence in his own ability concerning the four types tested. 3. Subject’s emotional attitudes during each test. On attitude measure No. 1, almost all the subjects turned out to be “extreme sheep” for all four tasks, There was only one “moderate sheep” answer for each of the tasks. The between conditions variance is negligible and will not be considered in further evaluations. One can infer from these scores that J.F. was successful in selecting a homogeneous group of subjects. cre was greater variation among attitude measures Nos. 2 and 3. Separate tests of analysis of variance were performed for each of them (Tables 3 and 4), There are highly significant Taste 3 ANALYsts or VARIANCE op Arrrrups Scores ConcenniInc Susjecrs’ Convipence ix Tir Own ESP Unpen tm Four ‘Test Conprrions Source | af. F P Between Conditions | 3 | > .2 Distance va, no distance 1 6551 Peg. vs. no Peg aia) Distance x Peg. | 15.6978 5.69 Between subjects _ 23 13,389. 13.12 | < 001 Subjects x conditions 6 3,062.5584 44.3849 Total | 95 16,624.9624 | | Tantx 4 ANALYS18 OF VARIANCE oF ATTrTupE Scones ConceaninG Sunyects’ Emorionat Arrrrupes Unver tue Four Test Conprrions Source | df. SS. Between Conditions 3 | 328.3480 109.449 distance 1 150.8261 Pog. va. no Pog. 1 162.6302 Distance x Peg. 1 14.8916 Between subjects 23 $,495.0197 Subjects x conditions | 69 5,884.0010 11,707.3687 Yournal of the American Society for Psychical Research 140 ariations between individual subjects’ responses in to both measures (P = .001). However, there is only a negligible variance on the most relevant between conditions item, i.¢., whatever the gubject’s attitude level was (high or low on K.O.'s rating scale), it was nearly the same for all four tasks, In regard to this very low between conditions variance, we were advised to drop the alysis of covariance, which was originally intended for removing the attitude factor from the analysis of scores. There was hing of significance to be removed. For the sake of extreme tion, however, we applied the test. The influence (if any) of Attitude factors in relation to the backward di ent scores was removed by means of an analysis of covariance (Table 5). This procedure increased slightly the significance of the main neasurement: between conditions variance (3P = .001). However, the main findings remained unchanged. Tanta 5 Anoasviare> TauLe or ANALYSIS oF CovAnIANce, Pearonmep To Remove Inrivence or Attrrupe Factors rrom Backwarp Dispiacement Scores df, | Unadjusted M.S. | Adjusted M.S. | F | 3p 3| 184.5127 | 178.6234 | 7,32 | 001 23 | 31.6355 31.7325 | 6) 24. 0799 24.3883 Tt was decided in advance to use only the measure of Obstacle Dominance (O.D.) from the Picture-Frustration Study for the main analysis. The rest of the scores on this test do not bear directly or the 1 hypothesis in question, i.e., subjects’ frustration caused by the (psychological) obstacles of distance in time and space might by itseif explain the results of the experiments. The subjects were separated into two groupe: “high O.D. group,” with scores higher or at the mean level of this experiment; and “low O.D. group,” with scores below the mean level. The low O.D. group is supposed to be less concerned with frustrating obstacles chen the high O.D. group, and we assumed that the former group would also be less frustrated and subjective about the distance (in time and ) factors in this experiment than the latter group. Analyses of variance of the —1 ESP scores were carried out separately for each group (‘Tables 6 and 7). In the high O.D. group (Table 6), no mean square exceeds the level of ‘the error variance; i.e., there are no indications of extrachance effects. Analysis of the low O.D. group (Table 7) shows a pattern very similar to that of the same kind of analysis of variance of the

141 Space and Time Variables in ESP Tauie 6 ANALysts or VawiaNce of Backwano DisrLacement Scones tm THE Hicu Onstacte Dominance Group Source Af. ss: M.S, Between conditions | 3 ~=6|~—s«g.0119 | «= 32.6706 Distance vs. no distance | 1 30.4675 30.4675 Pee. vs. no Peg, ) 1 9138 9138 * Peg. 1 66.6308 66.6308 Between subjects i 9 138.8048 15.4228 og * conditions 27 764.4839 28,3142 Ww subjects, within conditions 40 1,444.2997 36.1075 Total | 79 2,445.6003 ‘Tante 7 ANALYsis or Vaniance of Backwanp Disp_acement Scones IN THE Low Onstactn Dominancr Grour | ’ Source Ese 3P Between conditions / 3 | $33.2069 | 177.7356 | 4 Distance vs. no distance 4) “142929 | "1412929 “ial (oe Peg. va. no Peg. 1 3.2130 | 3.2130 Distance x Peg. | 1 | $15:7010 | 515:7010 Between subjects 13 584.7261 | 44.9789 Subjects x conditions 39 819.3512 21.0090 2,205.6436 | 39.3865 4,142.9278 subjects, within conditions 56 Total dit ] total data of all subjects (Table + Apparently all the extrachance scoring of this experiment came from the low O.D. » which is less concerned with frustrating situations, and as also a i ly less concerned with the frustrating obstacles of space c. Discussion We consider that this experiment was sufficiently safeguarded against the usual alternative hypotheses to ESP, such as sensory leakage, checking and computational errors, etc. _ The results give us a rather clear-cut answer to our first hypothe- sis: The four test conditions used in the experiment will influence to a statistically significant extent the scoring level. This hypothesis was tested by the over-all between conditions variance, which was significant (P = .015) as shown in Table 2. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research 142 The factorial design of this experiment made it possible for us to ask the following question: If there is a significant between conditions variance, is it attributable to the factor of space, to that ‘of time, or to the interactions between both? The three factorial jtems in Table 2 (Distance versus No Distance, Peg versus No Pcg, ‘and Distance interacting with Peg) show a clear pattern. All the _extrachance variance is contributed by the interaction between the 8 and time variables as measured in this experiment. This is significant. However, this finding should not lead us to make pinbiee ralizations. The statistical certainty of test measurements an ihe certainty of the generalized interpretations desired are often only loosely connected. One can never be sure from a single experiment that the factors supposedly tested are the only contribu- tors to the between conditions variance. The possibility remains that there are other important differences between the conditions used than the space and time variables, We did not recognize any of these differences; only other experiments using the same variables, but with modified conditions, could make the exclusion sufficiently certain. The factorial part of this experiment is complicated by indica- tions that under some conditions the subjects did extrachance hitting of the targets and under other conditions avoided them (Table 1); in other words, there was evidence of psi-hitting and psi-missing (12). It is obvious that the strength of the ESP effect does not depend solely on the absolute number of hits under the conditions compared, but also on their relation to what is expected ‘by chance alone. In our analysis of variance, the variation is counted from the obtained mean and not from chance expectation. So far as we know, this does not complicate any other but the factorial items in the analysis of variance table (Distance versus No Distance, Peg versus No Peg, Distance interacting with Pcg). The factorial items do not necessarily indicate the efficiency of ESP, ¢.g., that ESP effects are strong when one factor is absent, and weak when it is present; all they can tell us is which factors cause the differences in scoring levels in terms of absolute numbers, and whether the factors have independent or joint effects. Let us give some illustrations. Suppose that all four measures are above chance expectation. The factor associated with the two largest measures will either facilitate ESP or be irrelevant to it; the factor associated with the two smallest measures will either be irrelevant or hindering. These relations would be reversed if all four measures were smaller than chance expectation. If one pair of measures is far above chance expectation and the other pair the same distance below chance expectation, then both factors will be

143 Space and Time Variables in ESP associated with ESP effects of the same strength regardless of the difference in the number of hits. most relevant question about the data of this experiment is that concerning the twofold nature of the variables. Is the observed influence of the four test conditions attributable to the space and time variables as such, or to the subjects’ emotional attitudes toward them ? The attitude factors, so far as the questionnaire measured them, seem to have been surprisingly unimportant. When we removed their influence from the backward displacement evalua- tions, the between conditions variance changed very little (Table 5), It looks as though the subjects did not discriminate between the four conditions, but reacted either to the problem of ESP in general or to the testing situation throughout the session. This is inferred from the low level of between conditions variance of the attitude measures (Tables 3 and 4), It is true, of course, that our attitude test was not validated, nor retest reliability ascertained. However, we have no reason to doubt its adequacy, although there might be some hidden uncertainties. There were some factors which tended to counteract the forma- tion of biased attitudes. During the experiment neither the subjects nor the experimenter (J.F.) knew which of the Pcg tests would involve the space and time variables combined. Moreover, the subjects were told that, according to the leading authorities in the field, ESP works equally well under all four conditions. The same problem is illuminated from a different angle by the results of the Picture-Frustration Study. Independent measures could validate or, to a certain extent, invalidate each other. As mentioned above, the subjects were separated according to their scores into the high and low Obstacle Dominance groups. According to Rosenzweig (15, 16), subjects with high O.D. scores have strong subjective reactions to frustrating obstacles. We expected our subjects to be prone to subjective reactions in relation to the obstacles of spatial and temporal distances in the experiment. If the obtained effects of space and time variables on ESP in our experiment were merely of a subjective nature, they should have been more pronounced in the high O.D. group. The low O.D. group (according to the rationale of the P-F test) consists of subjects who are less concerned with frustrating obstacles; i.e., distances in this case, If the between conditions variance was mainly contributed by this group, it would suggest objective factors as a cause; i.e., the space and time variables themselves rather than the subjects’ attitude toward them. Tables 6 and 7 give a surprisingly clear answer: the entire between conditions variance, which exceeds the error level, is Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research 144 ‘contributed by the subjects in the low O.D. group. This supports the findings a the analysis of attitudes that we have tapped the objective factors—space and time—in this experiment. _ The results of this experiment indicate the P-F test can Bt) “objective” oF aT (useful = research in it variables are compared) from “‘subjective’’ ones whose scores erely reflect emotional attitudes. Thus the P-F test might make a valuable tool for all comparisons where subjects’ attitudes could shape the results, not only in parapsychological experiments, but also in other branches of psychology. REFERENCES 1. Carincton, Wuatety. Thought Transference. New York: Creative Age Press, 1946. ; : 2. Dovps, E. R. “Telepathy and Clairvoyance in Classical Antiquity.” Journal of Parapsychology, Vol. 10, December, 1946, 290-309. . Driescn, H. Alltagsratsel des Seelenlebens. Stuttgart, Germany: Deutsche verlags-anstalt, 1938. . . Lupwic, A. F. Geschichte okkultistischen (metapsychischen) Forschung, 1, Pfullingen: Johannes Baum, 1921. - . Manoan, G. L. “Evidence of Displacement in a Precognition Test." Journal of Parapsychology, Vol. 19, March, 1955, 35-44. . McManan, Evizasetu A., and Rurne, J. B. ‘A Second Zagreb- Durham ESP Experiment.”’ Journal of Parapsychology, Vol. 11, December, 1947, 244-253. 7. Osis, Karuts. “Precognition Over Time Intervals of One to Thirty-Three Days.” Journal of Parapsychology, Vol. 19, June, 1955, 82-91. ; . “ESP Over Distance: A Survey of Experiments Published in English.” Journal A.S.P.R., Vol. 59, January, 1965, 22-42. i q 9. Proceedings of Four Conferences of Parapsychological Studies. New York: Parapsychology Foundation, 1957. 10. Rao, K. R. Psi Cognition. Tenali, India: Tagore Publishing House, 1957. ; . ll. Rutz, J. B. “The Effect of Distance in ESP Tests.” Journal of Parapsychology, Vol. 1, September, 1937, 172-184. . “The Problem of gy Journal of Para- , Vol. 16, June, 195 . = seas World yy, the Mind. New York; William Sloane Associates, 1953. ana he Se Ow

145 Space and Time Variables in ESP 14. Rue, J. B., and Humpurey, Berry M. “A Transoceanic ESP Experiment.” Journal of Parapsychology, Vol. 6, March, 1942, 52-74. 15. Rosenzweic, Sauu. “The Picture-Association Method and its Application in a Study of Reactions to Frustration.” Journal of Personality, Vol. 14, September, 1945, 3-23. 16. Rosenzweic, SAuL, FLemrinec, Epitrx E., and Clarke, Heten Jane. “Revised Scoring Manual for the Rosenzweig Picture- Frustration Study.” Journal of Psychology, Vol. 24, October, 1947, 165-208. ; 17. Soat, S. G., and BATEMAN, F. Modern Experiments in Telepathy. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1954. 18. Tiscuner, R. Geschichte okkultistischen (metapsychischen) Forschung, I1. Pfullingen: Johannes Baum, 1924. 19. Tyrrett, G.N.M. The Personality of Man. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1947. A.S.P.R. 880 Fifth Avenue New York, N. Y. 10021 PRINTED IN BRUGES, BELGIUM, BY THE ST CATHERINE PRESS, LTD.